A longitudinal study exploring paternal stress and well-being, maternal depressive symptoms, and the offspring’s later psychosocial functioning in adolescence and young adulthood

Abstract

Background:
The influence of the father’s well-being on child development has been increasingly studied, but longitudinal studies remain few. This study explores how paternal stress and well-being in the offspring’s middle childhood is associated with the child’s internalizing and externalizing problems and competence in adolescence and young adulthood. In addition, it explores the combined effect of paternal stress and maternal depressive symptoms (MDS) trajectories, on child outcomes.

Method:
The longitudinal study started in 1989 in Tampere, Finland, and included 351 normal population primiparous mothers. MDS were screened prenatally, postnatally at 2 and 6 months, and when the index child was 4–5, 8–9, 16–17, and 27 years old. Fathers participated at the 8–9 years follow-up. The children completed questionnaires when they were 16–17 and 27 years old. Complete data were available from 106 adolescents and 81 young adults.

Results:
The father’s long term health problems were associated with the child’s poorer competence in adolescence. The simultaneous high maternal depressive symptoms trajectory increased the risk. In young adulthood, the father’s poorer health and life satisfaction were associated with the offspring having a lower level of internalizing problems and better adaptive functioning. The MDS trajectory was not associated with the young adult’s outcomes.

Limitations:
The sample size was moderate, and high-symptomatic cases were more common among drop-outs.

Conclusions:
Exposure to paternal stress and poor well-being in middle childhood should be considered as an important risk factor for child development. On the other hand, (mild) childhood adversity may enhance psychosocial functioning in young adulthood.