Sustainability of energy harvesters compared to common commercial batteries

Abstract

This study addresses the urgent need for sustainable energy solutions amid rising global energy demand by conducting a systematic, multi-criteria assessment of emerging energy harvesters versus conventional batteries. It compares PV solar panels, piezoelectric energy harvesters, lithium-ion batteries, and alkaline batteries. The methodology integrates a comprehensive literature review and a structured comparative framework to synthesize existing life cycle assessment and performance data across environmental, technical, and economic dimensions. The results indicate that photovoltaic systems ofer low life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions, short energy payback times, and long operational lifespans. Piezoelectric harvesters exhibit high theoretical cycle lives and, for lead-free variants, reduced toxicity compared to traditional designs. Among batteries, lithium-ion cells provide high energy density but entail larger embodied energy, emissions, and recycling challenges, whereas disposable alkaline cells, despite their low cost, perform poorest over their life cycles due to single-use limitations and low recycling rates. In sum, no single technology is universally superior: energy harvesters generally demonstrate stronger long-term sustainability and durability, while batteries excel in storage capacity. These conclusions highlight the importance of context-sensitive technology selection and have implications for energy policy and the adoption of sustainable technologies.