Neolithic native copper finds from Finland and north-west Russia : a multi-method approach

Abstract

<div lang="en" class="abs"><p class="abs_header">Abstract</p><p>Archaeological native copper finds pertaining to Neolithic sites in Finland and Russian Karelia were analysed using a multi-method approach comprising portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (pXRF), electron-probe microanalysis (EPMA), metallography and the Vickers hardness test of microhardness. The results indicate how the processing of this exotic raw material took place in several ways. Native copper nuggets show evidence of annealing. Small copper sheets and strips have been produced by both cold hammering and hot working, while the making of some artefacts has involved smelting and casting. Some finds previously interpreted as possible Neolithic native copper objects are shown to be made of copper alloys or other metals and dated to later periods. The use of float copper of local or regional origin, or even the utilization of copper ore, instead of or alongside native copper are also briefly discussed.</p></div>